The sixth in the series of policy papers on Inequality of Opportunity in Asia and the Pacific (following Education, Decent Work, Clean Energy, Child Nutrition, and Water and Sanitation), this paper uses innovative methods to identify the “furthest behind” in women’s and girls’ access to sexual and reproductive health services. It specifically explores gaps in access to skilled birth attendance and in the use of modern contraceptive methods, highlighting the importance of leaving no one behind, as pledged in the 2030 Agenda.

The seventh in the series of Inequality of Opportunity in Asia and the Pacific policy papers (following Education, Decent Work, Clean Energy, Child Nutrition, Water and Sanitation, and Women’s Sexual Reproductive Health), explores gaps between group in access to financial services as measured by ownership of a bank account. It sheds light on the layers of circumstances shared by the “furthest behind” groups and highlights the importance of reaching them as pledged in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The ESCAP nequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. They do so by identifying areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to sexual and reproductive health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities is covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in separate thematic reports covering 27 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. ESCAP first discussed inequality of opportunity in its 2015 report Time for Equality, establishing the distinction between inequality of outcome and inequality of opportunity. While the former depicts the consequences of unequally distributed income and wealth, the latter is concerned with access to key services necessary to fulfil one’s basic rights.The Inequality of Opportunity papers apply a novel approach to analysing household surveys with the aim of identifying the groups of individuals with the lowest access to the above-referenced opportunities. These groups are defined by common circumstances over which the individual has no direct control, such as their wealth, place of residence and education level, amongst others. In addition to identifying the furthest behind, the Inequality of Opportunity papers also explore the gaps between groups in accessing these key opportunities, as well as the extent to which these have narrowed or widened over time. They also review overall inequality trends in these opportunities. Ultimately, these findings are of direct use for generating discussion on transformations needed to reach the “furthest behind first” as pledged in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Pandemics have constituted challenging and recurrent episodes of humankind history. Major pandemics such as plagues, cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis and influenza have afflicted the health and well-being of millions, bringing societies and economies to their knees. The world is still grappling with the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. As of April 25, 2022, the World Health Organization (WHO) had confirmed over 500 million positive cases and over 6 million deaths worldwide. While most infected by COVID-19 do recover, many will suffer long-term consequences, such as fatigue, fever, tiredness and depression. The COVID-19 pandemic has been a major shock to economic and social progress in Asia and the Pacific. By exacerbating existing inequalities of income and access to basic services and opportunities, the pandemic could reverse decades of hard-won gains by pushing millions back into poverty. Its far-reaching health and economic consequences are still unfolding. Poorer individuals, migrants, informal workers, less educated groups, women, children and the youth, are more likely to contract the virus because of living and working conditions that limit their ability to protect themselves from the disease. At the same time, the health consequences of the disease are felt by all, particularly older persons and those suffering from chronic or long-term health conditions. The economic costs of the COVID-19 pandemic have been high. During 2020, the Asia-Pacific region experienced a GDP contraction of 1.1 per cent. Disruptions in economic activity are estimated to have pushed 75-80 million people back into extreme poverty. The years 2021–2022, however, proved to be even more challenging as the highly contagious Delta and Omicron variants resulted in further lockdowns and continued travel bans. The situation was aggravated by the slow progress of vaccination rollouts. As COVID-19 is turning endemic, it is time to reflect on how to better prepare for future similar threats. In addition to national public health responses and global detection and coordination efforts, much of the preparation can be done at the household level. Understanding and addressing inequalities in access to basic services.

The ESCAP Inequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. The papers do so by identifying seven areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities are covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in a separate thematic report covering 22 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. Equitable opportunities for education are a fundamental human right. Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights each enshrine this right. The aim of this policy paper is: i) to outline why it is important to reduce inequality in educational attainment; ii) to introduce a new way of analysing survey data by identifying the shared circumstances of those “furthest behind”; and iii) to analyse observed inequality by the relative contribution of each circumstance.

The ESCAP Inequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. The papers do so by identifying seven areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities are covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in a separate thematic report covering 22 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. Overall, the aim of this policy paper is: i) to outline why policymakers need to reduce inequality in access to clean energy; ii) to introduce a new way of analysing survey data by identifying the shared circumstances of those “furthest behind”; and i) to analyse observed inequality by the relative contribution of each circumstance.

The ESCAP Inequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. The papers do so by identifying seven areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities are covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in a separate thematic report covering 22 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. Decent work embodies full and productive employment, rights at work, social protection and the promotion of social dialogue. Reaching those left behind and enabling access to decent work will promote lives of greater dignity and greatly reduce all forms of inequality. The overall aim of this policy paper is: i) to outline why policymakers need to take action to reduce inequality in access to full-time employment; ii) to introduce a new way of analysing survey data by identifying the shared circumstances of those “furthest behind”; and iii) to analyse observed inequality by the relative contribution of each different circumstance, over which the individual has little or no control.

The ESCAP Inequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. The papers do so by identifying seven areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities are covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in a separate thematic report covering 22 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. The fifth in the series of Inequality of Opportunity in Asia and the Pacific policy papers (following Education, Decent Work, Clean Energy and Children’s Nutrition) , this paper highlights why it is important to reduce inequalities in access to clean water and basic sanitation. It also introduces new ways of analyzing surveys to measure inequality of opportunity and to identify the shared circumstances of those “furthest behind” in 22 ESCAP member States.

The ESCAP Inequality of Opportunity papers place men and women at the heart of sustainable and inclusive development. The papers do so by identifying seven areas where inequality jeopardizes a person’s prospects, namely: education; women’s access to health care; children’s nutrition; decent work; basic water and sanitation; access to clean energy; and financial inclusion. Each of these opportunities are covered by specific commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and addressed in a separate thematic report covering 22 countries throughout Asia and the Pacific. The fourth in the series of Inequality of Opportunity in Asia and the Pacific policy papers (following Education, Decent Work, Clean Energy), this paper highlights why it is important to reduce inequalities in access to children's nutrition. It also introduces new ways of analyzing surveys to measure inequality of opportunity and to identify the shared circumstances of those “furthest behind” in 22 ESCAP member States.